Class: MAMMALIA

Order: ARTIODACTYLA

Family: CERVIDAE

Genus: RANGIFER

Species: TARANDUS, +5?

The terms “reindeer” and “caribou” refer to the same species – though “reindeer” originates in Europe, from Old Norse “hreinn”, referring to the animal. The term “caribou” originates in North America, and is thought to be a Canada-French derivative of the Mi’kmaq “ğalipu”, “snow-shoveler”, referring to the animal’s behavioural trait of removing snow to find grass to eat underneath. Reindeer are traditionally classified as only one species, R. tarandus - though some biologists believe, attributing DNA evidence, lack of geographical overlap, and morphological differences, that Rangifer should be split into 6 species, between which there are several subspecies. Reindeer are essentially found over the entirety of the extreme northern hemisphere, from Canada upwards, in both Europe and North America. An introduced population has also existed on the South Georgia islands closer to Antarctica - introduced by Norwegians during the 1900s as a more conventional food-source. Reindeer at South Georgia would graze almost all available area - proving a negative effect for native nesting birds. An eradication of these reindeer populations has been undertaken - it is believed none remain. Reindeer have also been re-introduced to the United Kingdom - namely, a large herd has lived freely, albeit under human moderation, in the Cairngorms Mountains, since the year 1952. Accommodating a wide range are seven major populations of Reindeer; the European Tundra and Forest Reindeer, the Svalbard Reindeer, the Porcupine, Barren-ground, and North American Woodland Caribou, and the smallest, the Peary Caribou, measuring only 90 centimetres at the shoulder. [Compare with the average height of 140 or so centimetres] Fossils indicate a relatively recent origin of the reindeer, clocking in about 1 million years ago. Its sub-family, Capreolinae, is shared with various other species of deer, though it is the most evolutionarily distinct member of its sub-family.

Of the deer in its sub-family, it is fairly more stocky, and the bucks can weigh over 200 kilogrammes. The doe is more lightweight, and only weigh up to 100 or so kilogrammes less. It is a muscular deer, the deer has relatively thin legs – if the legs were to be thicker, the animal would be at a disadvantage of escaping predation. The hooves, however, are considerably wider than that of other deer species - as so to prevent reindeer from sinking into the soft tundra ground beneath. On the head of both sexes, unique amongst deer, are a pair of antlers. The antlers of the male can grow especially large, weighing alone up to 15 kilogrammes, though the antlers of the female are fairly smaller. The opposite sexes, however, shed the antlers at different times of the year – Males lose the antlers around early Winter, though the does lose their antlers around early May. A reason for this may be because of food availability – in that pregnant females are at more need of food than mature male deer. And as such, to protect food from competitors is essential for both the mother and fawn. In the case of castrated male reindeer, they tend to lack the levels of testosterone needed for the antler to completely harden - so the antler's velvet never sheds in a regular fashion, and the antler itself does not fall off regularly, instead in smaller chunks. This can lead to abnormal growth on the antler, which has the potential to become infected. The brow twines at the front of the antler over time lose a sharp shape, and regular shape of the antler is often lost. In female reindeer, the growth of the antler is controlled by the respective sex hormone - oestrogen. The skull of the reindeer is typical amongst deer – it is fairly elongated, with about 34 teeth. With no incisors at the upper jaw, reindeer cannot chew most polygonal solid food – the teeth are rather built for eating grass. As is the case with a fair number of mammals, the reindeer has two layers of fur, guard hairs and underfur – making for effective insulation from harsh temperatures, which may descend as low as 62 degrees Celsius below zero. Reindeer have different appearances based on their ecotype. Traditionally classified as one species, some recent research suggests that reindeer are better classified within six different species. These are as follows: R. fennicus, the Eurasian Forest Reindeer, which is found in areas of Finland and possibly also Russia. The forest reindeer, classified traditionally as R. t. fennicus, is a subspecies found almost entirely in boreal forest. The body of the forest reindeer bears resemblance to that of the American caribou. However, it appears to have antlers which are largely symmetrical. It has become a sub-species of conservation importance – during the 20th century it was heavily hunted, and many remaining animals interbred with genetically-impure domesticated reindeer. Later in the 20th century a reintroduction programme at Suomenselkä began – and today, the herd has reached a size of some 2000 animals. There also exist forest reindeer in isolated populations – the Siberian forest reindeer, R. t. valentinae, or R. f. valentinae (or sometimes considered as R. fennicus), is found in forested areas of Siberia. Recent studies done with the Siberian forest reindeer of the Altai-Sayan region have found rather low genetic diversity, and also intervention from domestic reindeer. Genetic sampling has brought interesting result regarding the forest reindeer – the Siberian Forest Reindeer and Finnish Forest Reindeer seem to form sister clades, despite a significant amount of land between either ecotype’s ranges. The forest reindeer has a pelage similar to American caribou. The colouration of the pelage varies depending on the individual – but the winter coat tends to have a large area of white around the neck and shoulders, with a brown stripe separating this area from the white belly and ‘stockings’. Above this area of white is an area of brown fur. The rump is white, though the presents of a white belly seems to vary amongst individuals. The summer pelage of the reindeer is thinner and darker in colour.

R. tarandus, the tundra reindeer, found in areas of Scandinavia. The species most commonly recognised by most scientists, the taxonomic changes have little effect on the listing of this species. It is the northernmost of the reindeer ecotypes, found in Norway, Sweden, northernmost Finland, and also areas of northernmost Siberia. It is a sub-species with an apparent preferred habitat of open tundra. The pelage of the tundra reindeer is not significantly different from that of the forest reindeer, or even most American caribou ecotypes. It also bears striking resemblance in antlers to the American caribou – like caribou, its antlers are asymmetrical, with one antler possessing a ‘trowel’. It is possible that as the American caribou and tundra reindeer became adapted to similar habitats around the same time, and crossing from Russia to Alaska or vice versa occurred, the asymmetrical ‘trowel’ became more prevalent in tundra reindeer. However, genetic testing of the tundra reindeer is difficult – simply because the name Rangifer tarandus has been used indiscriminately of ecotype. Under this classification, three sub-species of the tundra reindeer are alive today – the Norwegian Reindeer, found in Scandinavia, and R. t. sibricus, the Siberian Tundra Reindeer, found in open areas of Siberia. It has also been introduced as a farm animal to Alaska – though interestingly, wild caribou rarely hybridised with imported Siberian reindeer, even when kept in captivity. Another isolated population, R. t. phylarchus, is restricted to the Kamchatka peninsula, and also closely resembles to American barren-ground caribou. The existence of another sub-species, R. t. pearsoni, native to Novaya Zemlya, is held in question – as most reindeer there today are domesticated, and it’s probably that this sub-species became heavily interbred with domestic reindeer. The tundra reindeer is also the species from which the domestic reindeer is believed to have descended – unlike the ancestral Siberian reindeer, which partakes in annual migration, the domesticated reindeer is largely sedentary, staying with its pack of people and other reindeer.

R. platyrhynchus, the Svalbard Reindeer, found only at the Svalbard archipelago. As resources at this archipelago are limited, this sub-species is significantly smaller than are other Eurasian reindeer subspecies. It has a shorter body, and is notably hairier and monotonous in colouration. Its antlers are largely symmetrical, but are hardly significant in size. It has been found to have about an equal level of genetic distinction from other Eurasian reindeer as the caribou of Greenland have with caribou of the North American continent. R. groenlandicus – the Greenland Caribou, found in western Greenland. Sometimes considered conspecific with the barren-ground caribou found in Canada and Alaska. Curiously it is not closely related to the Svalbard reindeer; but rather it and the Svalbard are the two most divergent ecotypes of reindeer – all other reindeer ecotypes share closer relations than they do to either the Greenland Caribou or Svalbard Reindeer. It is not very much different from Caribou that are found on the North American continent, though the antlers of this ecotype are slimmer, and they are asymmetrical.

R. arcticus, the Arctic caribou, found in areas of Canada and Alaska. Seven herds of this ecotype are recognised – with such herds being named after their respective calving grounds – such as the Porcupine Caribou having calving grounds close to the Porcupine River in Alaska. It is paler and smaller than is the woodland caribou, and unlike the woodland caribou partakes in extensive annual migrations each year to specific calving grounds. The pelage of this ecotype is largely brown, with a white rump, dark stripe on belly and dark ‘stockings’. Sometimes the belly is also white. The Arctic caribou’s antlers are longer than those of the woodland caribou, and are swept back with multiple tines at top. Within the Arctic caribou, under this classification system, various sub-species have been identified – R. a. arcticus, the barren-ground caribou, which is found in Canada and Alaska. During the summer it occupies open tundra – whereas in the winter it remains secluded within boreal forests. R. a. pearyi, the Peary Caribou, the smallest and northernmost of the American caribou. It inhabits much of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Unlike the barren-ground caribou, much of the Peary Caribou’s pelage is white in colouration – with a brown, thick stripe on its back – the size of this variable on the individual. The antlers are also distinct – and are largely symmetrical. Arctic caribou are of much economic importance to local tribes as a source of meat and fur.

R. caribou, the Woodland caribou, found in areas of boreal forest of North America. At one point found in areas of the lower 48 states, it is now believed that the population of this sub/species is restricted to Canada – including the islands of Labrador and Newfoundland. Darker than the woodland caribou, they also have the largest antlers overall – but these are flattened in cross-section, as opposed to the curved antlers of the Barren-ground caribou. They are also thinner, and twines are more of regular shape – and they may be symmetrical. For much of the year, woodland caribou are solitary animals – but form small herds in winter, migrating distances of little magnitude. In spring when female caribou begin calving, they tend to find an area of seclusion – from then, they will remain rather solitary until winter. Under the recent classification system, three sub-species are recognised – R. c. caribou, found mainly on the mainland of Canada – R. c. caboti, the Labrador caribou, found on the island of Labrador – and R. c. terraenovae, the Newfoundland Caribou, found on the island of Newfoundland. This caribou ecotype encompasses the largest herd in Canada – the George River Herd, which moves between Quebec and Labrador – with some half a million caribou. The island populations have differed appearances from the mainland – with Newfoundland and Labrador caribou being lighter in colour than mainland populations. On reindeer, hair is comparatively more abundant than in other deer - reindeer maintain hair above the nose, and also at the hoof.

Reindeer have, on average, 2000 guard hairs for every cubed centimetre, making them amongst the hairiest of all deer species.

Occupying northern areas of Earth, the typical habitat of reindeer is tundra, and in some cases woodland. In such environments, snowfall is frequent during the winter; which may accumulate an annual of 2 metres in depth. During the winter, the soil freezes over; meaning that at this time of year only cold-resistant lichen, which is known also as 'reindeer moss', can be eaten. Much of the tundra soil is that of permafrost; meaning that plants which grow in the tundra tend to have short roots. The arrival of summer brings more variety of plant on the tundra - but these too are low in protein; so reindeer have to resort to recycling urea so to use nitrogen to its fullest potential; and an adult reindeer may eat up to 6 kilogrammes of plant matter a day. Even so, reindeer have been observed to occasionally consume small mammals, including lemmings, as a source of protein. The deer are typically social, and may form groups of up to 13 or so. Reindeer are typically placid animals, though can be defensive against predators. Reindeer are one of the few grazers of the tundra; and similarly few predators exist in the tundra capable of attacking an adult reindeer - of which wolves are the most potent. As is the case with various other species of deer, reindeer bucks perform ruts around late September, to create a harem of does to breed with. Competition typically consists of the clashing of antlers, as so to defend against rival males. Typically, the larger buck is the one which comes out as victorious. When impregnated, the doe is pregnant for about 200 or so days before a fawn is born, though this can vary amongst populations – European reindeer pregnancies may last up to 220 days, though their American counterparts lack a month of such. Reindeer of northernmost populations, at certain times of the year, lack circadian rhythms as so to adapt to the irregular day-night cycle. At around 5 years of age, the fawn is independent of its parents. As a reindeer walks, the feet of the deer emit a ‘clicking’ sound – it is believed that this mechanism was evolved as so to keep the herd of reindeer in conjunction, in the case of impairment of sight. Grunting is also important as communication – in the cases of mothers keeping fawns close by, or males rutting towards females. In a wild state, reindeer, as relatively large herbivores, are predated on only by wolves, and perhaps humans. On average, a wild reindeer is to live for about 15 years, though animals in captivity may live up to 20 years.

Interactions of people and reindeer appear to have begun far longer ago than traditionally thought – in that traditional estimates put reindeer domestication as only a result of a few centuries, though recent years have led to the discovery of ancient artifacts thought to be reindeer harnesses – radio-carbon dated to about 2,000 years, originating in northern Siberia. It is also known that around 700 years ago, the Sámi people used reindeer as a form of transportation to pull sleds as working animals. Interestingly, where peoples of Eurasia successfully domesticated reindeer, the Caribou of North America were never domesticated. Even so, many native tribes of North America rely on caribou as part of their diet; and in the case of the Nunamiut Iñupiat, it is the most important food source; and they rely on caribou also for fat, fur, and bones - which can be used to make a broth. Caribou fur allows for warmth in the hostile cold of the Arctic, and the tendons of the caribou can be used to make nets. Even today, the traditional herding of reindeer continues – when such occurs, the herders follow an organised migration path of the reindeer, which requires astute and intimate knowledge of the reindeer involved and their surroundings. It also requires an understanding of reindeer husbandry – namely which reindeer are to be slaughtered, which are to become draft-animals, and which are to be castrated. Although a need for transportation has been lessening in recent years, reindeer are still herded for meat, hide, and milk. This, thus, makes them the only species of deer that has become largely domesticated. In more recent times, reindeer farming has proven to be marketable.

This is in part due to the Western conception of reindeer – although reindeer have played a role in mythology for thousands of years, as symbols of luck, riches, and allure, it would not be popular with the Western World until the 1800s, with the publication of “A Visit from St. Nicholas” – introducing the characters of eight flying reindeer - “Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now, Prancer and Vixen! On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Dunder and Blixem*!” It would not be until 1939 when a ninth reindeer was added to the Yuletide roll-call – when Robert L. May of the Montgomery Ward department store would be asked to write a Christmas story as a promotional event. And so it would be that Rudolph, the red-nosed reindeer, would be the most recent member of the Yuletide herd, and about 10 years later, May’s brother-in-law would write a song based off May’s book. At this point in time, reindeer were essentially contemporary with the holiday scene. Such popularity has led to reindeer becoming popular attractions across the Western world, making appearances at public facilities, such as manors and gardens, as so to capitalise off holiday enthusiasm. This, however, has not been met without controversy – the RSPCA of the United Kingdom has expressed concern for reindeer used in public events, in that the social animals are likely under great stress when usually kept alone in small areas to meet passing tourists. Most tour-reindeer live on nearby farms throughout the year, rented typically only during the holiday season, proving as popular tourism attractions. In the case of the Cairngorms Reindeer Herd of Scotland; castrate reindeer are used in holiday displays, but live in the mountains for the rest of the year. Whilst this herd is able to traverse the entirety of the Cairngorms, they are still managed by people - and socialise well with people.

*”Dunder” and “Blixem” are now commonly referred to in most cases as “Donner and Blitzen.” The two words translate from Dutch to “thunder” and “lighting” respectively.

Reindeer remain popular as seasonal attractions of developed nations; and the demand for live reindeer; although moderately controversial, remains in place. It seems likely that reindeer maintained by such commercial-driven herds will continue to exist as a form of tourism, and to a lesser extent a source of food. The reindeer of the Indigenous peoples, however, is semi-domesticated, the future of these animals lying in the management of Indigenous peoples, and the management of the land both the people and deer live on. In recent times, climate change has become a subject of concern for not only reindeer, but other animals of the Polar environments, as well as various tribes of Indigenous people, Sámi included. Reindeer play a vital source in the everyday life and tradition of the Sámi people, and so if the weather conditions are to greatly deteriorate, it could lead to great die-offs of reindeer, leaving the future of the Sámi peoples uncertain. The same conditions which concern the future of the Sámis’ reindeer also concern wild reindeer. The reindeer kept as livestock in Eurasia are of the tarandus ecotype, the same managed by indigenous peoples of Eurasia - though there is a possibility that hybridisation with fennicus animals has occurred. The animals kept as livestock in Alaska and other such areas of the United States are historically of mixed blood - sibricus and tarandus. As of yet, there is not yet a great decline in the number of deer, though there is concern that the number of mature deer is decreasing. As well as increasing global temperatures, some reindeer populations are also affected by deforestation, in particular woodland caribou of North America, and forest reindeer of Europe.

The forest reindeer has historically seen a decline in population - in the Finnish region of Kainuu, in the 1970s, it was believed that no more than 300 animals remained; but with the success of the project at Suomenselkä almost 3000 forest reindeer now exist in Finland; some 800 at Kainuu and another 2000 or so at Suomenselkä. It is thought also that competition with domesticated reindeer also acts as a minor threat. Caribou are occasionally hunted; perhaps excessively so; but haven't experienced sharp decline largely until recent - when developments, such as housing, pipelines, and loggings were of prominence. In the lower 48, diseases transmitted by other deer was also fatal; and as of 2019 the Woodland Caribou no longer exists in the United States. Whenever possible, caribou are avoidant of humans. Warmer summers as a result of increasing temperatures also lead to an increase in parasitic insects, such as mosquito – leading to outbreaks of diseases in reindeer and caribou, and large-scale deaths from such have been reported in reindeer of Europe. As such, many herds of reindeer today now belong to organised conservation plans, which follow management systems. Habitat management will be paramount in securing the future of wild herds of reindeer and caribou, which includes the restriction of logging for forest-living ecotypes and negotiations regarding development for barren-living ecotypes. Even so, conservation measures taken thus far have shown promising result - at the Klinse-Za herd, which previously saw dramatic decline from the end of the 20th century to 2013, the implementation of controlled predator reduction, short-term population recovery actions, long-term habitat protection, and maternal pens for pregnant does, has led to another increase in the herd's population. The area is maintained in large part by First Nations peoples; who feed and monitor pregnant does. As such, with Indigenous peoples becoming a spearhead for caribou conservation at this herd, it could lead to interesting implications on how future herds could be managed.

Please note that the Wenden Animal Encyclopaedia is not directly affiliated with any of the links below, and thus is not responsible for any content they may provide, or the accuracy of such content.

reindeerherding.org - International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry

cairngormreindeer.co.uk - Cairngorm Reindeer Herd