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--- tiger [2023/10/15 13:12] – zookeeper
+++ tiger [2023/10/15 15:28] (current) – [IV. TIGER HABITATS] zookeeper
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 With a wide range, tigers are highly adaptable to a wide range of habitats, and were likely adapted to an even greater range of habitats in times before European colonisation. Bengal Tigers, found in India, are best-suited to humid jungle, though also thrive in swamps and mangroves. Most Bengal Tiger populations are located in India – though a few also exist in Nepal, with even smaller populations in southern Bangladesh and Southern China. One especially large population is found in Telangana, where tigers are kept in various reserves. In this Indian state, humidity stays around 65% year-round, with a typical hot, dry climate. The cooler period is marked by a period of monsoon – which lasts from June until September – resulting in 755 millimeters of precipitation. Telangana is of mixed evergreen forest – some trees reaching 70 metres in height. Leopards are the only big cats the use trees intensively – but tigers use trees mainly to mark territory, but should a tiger come across a tree with low-hanging branches, it will use it as a refuge or place of rest. Younger tigers, up to the age of sixteen months, climb trees often as a form of adventure, and sometimes even chase langur monkeys into the trees. Nuts also fall from trees, becoming a primary food-source for deer and wild pigs, so healthy trees are instrumental to the abundance of tigers in an area. Some Bengal Tigers can also be found at the Sundarbans Mangrove Forest, a coastal environment – the only such environment where tigers live. The Sundarbans, however, present a challenging environment for tigers to thrive – as it is an area where human settlement is becoming more commonplace; and people often kill wild pigs, deer, and buffalo for food. With reduction of this prey, tigers of the Sundarbans seem to have become more inclined to hunt people for food, with about 300 people being killed by tigers since the start of the 21st century.
-In Nepal, there are Bengal Tigers which live mainly in five national parks – where they live in the Terai Arc Landscape – an area of some 24,710 kilometres. Sitting at the foothills of the Himalayas, the humidity and temperature of the TAL are not greatly different than that of Telangana. The most common tree within much of the region is the Sal tree, //Shorea robusta//. 22% of the Indian tiger population is located in the TAL, where it often comes into contact with people – of which the population there numbers 6.7 million; and is in increase. There may be as many as 5 tigers for every 100 square kilometres at the TAL. Whilst tigers cause sizable economic losses within the area, leopards are typically seen as greater economical threats, as they attack people and livestock more common. Malayan Tigers are another race of tiger that is well-suited to humid environments – confirmed to be separate from the Indo-China Tiger in 2004. Most Malayan Tigers are found in Taman-Negara, one of the oldest tropical rainforests on Earth. 4000 kilometres in area, it is a dense forest, with Tualang trees, which can reach more than 75 metres in height, being the most common tree in the area; though tree-diversity per hectare is high, with some 280 species per hectare. It is also a humid forest – with humidity staying around 90% year-round, and temperatures staying around 30 degrees Celsius year round. Around winter is a period of monsoon, which lasts about a month. As well as sambar deer, a species often consumed by both Bengal and Malayan tigers, the Malayan Tapir is another prey which is sometimes consumed – but not as often as deer, as Malayan tapir are nocturnal, compared to the often crepuscular nature of tigers. Outside captivity, Taman-Negara appears the last refuge for the Malayan Tiger – of which only 60 might remain in the wild. In the 1950s, it may have been that within Malaysia about 3000 tigers lived. The Sumatran Tiger is the only living tiger of an island environment – where it mainly lives in the Barisan Mountains, which cover some 1700 km of Sumatra’s west side. Most of Bukit Barisan, as it is otherwise called, consists of volcanic rock which is now covered, over a layer of ash, with tropical rainforest. Several national parks, including the Bukit Barisan National Park, offer the last refuge to the Sumatran Tiger – with it believed that there are no more than 600 remaining. At Bukit Barisan, temperatures fluctuate between 22 and 35 degrees Celsius, and humidity fluctuates from 72% to 86%. The Bali and Javan Tigers, now extinct, may well have experienced similar climatic conditions.
+In Nepal, there are Bengal Tigers which live mainly in five national parks – where they live in the Terai Arc Landscape – an area of some 24,710 kilometres. Sitting at the foothills of the Himalayas, the humidity and temperature of the TAL are not greatly different than that of Telangana. The most common tree within much of the region is the Sal tree, //Shorea robusta//. 22% of the Indian tiger population is located in the TAL, where it often comes into contact with people – of which the population there numbers 6.7 million; and is in increase. There may be as many as 5 tigers for every 100 square kilometres at the TAL. Whilst tigers cause sizable economic losses within the area, leopards are typically seen as greater economical threats, as they attack people and livestock more often. Malayan Tigers are another race of tiger that is well-suited to humid environments – confirmed to be separate from the Indo-China Tiger in 2004. Most Malayan Tigers are found in Taman-Negara, one of the oldest tropical rainforests on Earth. 4000 kilometres in area, it is a dense forest, with Tualang trees, which can reach more than 75 metres in height, being the most common tree in the area; though tree-diversity per hectare is high, with some 280 species per hectare. It is also a humid forest – with humidity staying around 90% year-round, and temperatures staying around 30 degrees Celsius year round. Around winter is a period of monsoon, which lasts about a month. As well as sambar deer, a species often consumed by both Bengal and Malayan tigers, the Malayan Tapir is another prey which is sometimes consumed – but not as often as deer, as Malayan tapir are nocturnal, compared to the often crepuscular nature of tigers. Outside captivity, Taman-Negara appears the last refuge for the Malayan Tiger – of which only 60 might remain in the wild. In the 1950s, it may have been that within Malaysia about 3000 tigers lived. The Sumatran Tiger is the only living tiger of an island environment – where it mainly lives in the Barisan Mountains, which cover some 1700 km of Sumatra’s west side. Most of Bukit Barisan, as it is otherwise called, consists of volcanic rock which is now covered, over a layer of ash, with tropical rainforest. Several national parks, including the Bukit Barisan National Park, offer the last refuge to the Sumatran Tiger – with it believed that there are no more than 600 remaining. At Bukit Barisan, temperatures fluctuate between 22 and 35 degrees Celsius, and humidity fluctuates from 72% to 86%. The Bali and Javan Tigers, now extinct, may well have experienced similar climatic conditions.
 The South China Tiger, now extinct in the wild, mainly inhabited broadleaf forests of Southern China, where it was mainly a resident of moderate montane environments. About 100 live in captivity, most living in the Wangcheng Park Zoo, with some 40. A few now also live at Laohu Valley Reserve – a nature reserve located in South Africa. Humidity and climate of this reserve is somewhat dissimilar to what would be experienced in native China – but breeding success has occurred here. The Indochinese Tiger is now found neither in India or China, but is now mostly found in Thailand, with some small populations in Myanmar. Like the South China Tiger, it most often resides in mixed broadleaf forests. The Amur, or Siberian Tiger, is the most unusual race of tiger in terms of habitat today – where the five other major races live in mostly tropical environments, the Amur Tiger is found in rather colder climates. Most live amongst the Sikhote Alin mountain range, of the Russian far-east, primarily in montane forests. Here it is most rainy during the Summer period, with snow falling on peaks from September, and snow continues to fall into the mountain range until December. The summer at Sikhote-Alin reaches a high of 20 degrees Celsius in July – with Winter temperatures falling below 30 degrees Celsius at lowest. Most mountains are covered with birch and conifer at higher slopes; with deciduous forest at lower altitudes. The Amur Tiger’s main prey is that of the Manchurian Wapiti, //Cervus elaphus xanthopygos// – with another sizable proportion represented by that of wild pigs. In these mountains tigers have to compete with various other large or medium-sized meat-eaters – lynx, brown and Asiatic black bear, and wolverines. Of all the trees in the area, Amur Tigers appear most dependent on Korean pine trees – as they use these trees most often for shelter – and also provide food for wapiti and pigs, the prime prey of the Amur Tiger.
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 ===== VIII. TIGERS IN WESTERN PERCEPTION; ITS EFFECTS ON TIGER POPULATIONS =====
-With the arrival of western colonisation, came the anthropocentric ideology held by Europe for thousands of years, placing people at the highest position of the ‘natural order’ – and so too did western machinery, such as guns, arrive. British Colonialism in particular was greatly destructive to the culture which India held for thousands of years – draining it from wealth that it had accrued independently, and inciting famine. And with the culture that had allowed for the tiger to prosper for thousands of years, so did disappear the respect the tiger had in these regions. The tiger was heavily persecuted under Imperial rule as a savage – and many tigers were hunted not only under the aufices of such prejudice; but also for the aesthetic ‘feat’ of possessing a tiger’s coat as a trophy. Tigers would go on to be used in menagerie and circus; but people of the time had little regard or respect for the wellbeing of these animals, let alone their wild populations. Under British rule, the tiger population, largely though not entirely contained within India, fell staggeringly from 100,000 at the turn of the 20th century to about 40,000 after India’s withdrawal from the British Empire. Further persecution into the 20th century left about 2000 by the year 1999.
+With the arrival of western colonisation, came the anthropocentric ideology held by Europe for thousands of years, placing people at the highest position of the ‘natural order’ – and so too did western machinery, such as guns, arrive. British Colonialism in particular was greatly destructive to the culture which India held for thousands of years – draining it from wealth that it had accrued independently, and inciting famine. And with the culture that had allowed for the tiger to prosper for thousands of years, so did disappear the respect the tiger had in these regions. The tiger was heavily persecuted under Imperial rule as a savage – and many tigers were hunted not only under the portent of such prejudice; but also for the aesthetic ‘feat’ of possessing a tiger’s coat as a trophy. Tigers would go on to be used in menagerie and circus; but people of the time had little regard or respect for the wellbeing of these animals, let alone their wild populations. Under British rule, the tiger population, largely though not entirely contained within India, fell staggeringly from 100,000 at the turn of the 20th century to about 40,000 after India’s withdrawal from the British Empire. Further persecution into the 20th century left about 2000 by the year 1999.
 But the plight of the tiger, by then, was well-known about – and several legislative changes had taken place. China had banned the domestic trade of tiger-based products – and a symposium was held in London, ‘Tigers 2000’, which would lead into a project which raised money for tigers in wild populations. In 2007, some 11,000 tigers existed in managed care worldwide – 5,000 in Chinese breeding centres, which gave concern that it could fuel a market for tiger parts and medicine. In 2010 some hope was given to the state of tigers in the wild – in some areas of India, population density had increased. Political support had been given to tiger population extensions in India, with 2,225 or so tigers in India by 2014 – an increase from 1700 or so in 2010. In 2016 almost 4000 tigers were believed to exist in the wild, with 300 Amur tigers existing in colder regions. With continued destruction of natural habitat, as well as ongoing hunting, tigers are still considered as ‘endangered’ by the IUCN – but with strengthened governmental support, in a sense, the plight to return tigers to natural habitat hasn’t been stronger at most any points before.