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--- reindeer [2024/01/18 05:46] – zookeeper
+++ reindeer [2024/01/20 11:29] (current) – [III. PEOPLE AND REINDEER] zookeeper
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-**T**he terms “reindeer” and “caribou” refer to the same species – though “reindeer” originates in Europe, from Old Norse “hreinn”, referring to the animal. The term “caribou” originates in North America, and is thought to be a Canada-French derivative of the Mi’kmaq “ğalipu”, “snow-shoveler”, referring to the animal’s behavioural trait of removing snow to find grass to eat underneath. Reindeer are traditionally classified as only one species, //R. tarandus// - though some biologists believe, attributing DNA evidence, lack of geographical overlap, and morphological differences, that //Rangifer// should be split into 6 species, between which there are several subspecies. Reindeer are essentially found over the entirety of the extreme northern hemisphere, from Canada upwards, in both Europe and North America. An introduced population has also existed on the South Georgia islands closer to Antarctica - introduced by Norwegians during the 1900s as a more conventional food-source. Reindeer at South Georgia would graze almost all available area - proving a negative effect for native nesting birds. An eradication of these reindeer populations has been undertaken - it is believed none remain. Reindeer have also been re-introduced to the United Kingdom - namely, a large herd has lived freely, albeit under human moderation, in the Cairngorms Mountains, since the year 1952. Accommodating a wide range are seven major populations of Reindeer; the European Tundra and Forest Reindeer, the  Svalbard Reindeer, the Porcupine, Barren-ground, and North American Woodland Caribou, and the smallest, the Peary Caribou, measuring only 90 centimetres at the shoulder. [Compare with the average height of 140 or so centimetres] Fossils indicate a relatively recent origin of the reindeer, clocking in about 1 million years ago. Its sub-family, Capreolinae, is shared with various other species of deer, though it is the most evolutionarily distinct member of its sub-family.
+**T**he terms “reindeer” and “caribou” refer to the same genus – though “reindeer” originates in Europe, from Old Norse “hreinn”, referring to the animal. The term “caribou” originates in North America, and is thought to be a Canada-French derivative of the Mi’kmaq “ğalipu”, “snow-shoveler”, referring to the animal’s behavioural trait of removing snow to find grass to eat underneath. Reindeer are traditionally classified as only one species, //R. tarandus// - though some biologists believe, attributing DNA evidence, lack of geographical overlap, and morphological differences, that //Rangifer// should be split into 6 species, between which there are several subspecies. Reindeer are essentially found over the entirety of the extreme northern hemisphere, from Canada upwards, in both Europe and North America. An introduced population has also existed on the South Georgia islands closer to Antarctica - introduced by Norwegians during the 1900s as a more conventional food-source. Reindeer at South Georgia would graze almost all available area - proving a negative effect for native nesting birds. An eradication of these reindeer populations has been undertaken - it is believed none remain. Reindeer have also been re-introduced to the United Kingdom - namely, a large herd has lived freely, albeit under human moderation, in the Cairngorms Mountains, since the year 1952. Accommodating a wide range are seven major populations of Reindeer; the European Tundra and Forest Reindeer, the  Svalbard Reindeer, the Porcupine, Barren-ground, and North American Woodland Caribou, and the smallest, the Peary Caribou, measuring only 90 centimetres at the shoulder. [Compare with the average height of 140 or so centimetres] Fossils indicate a relatively recent origin of the reindeer, clocking in about 1 million years ago. Its sub-family, Capreolinae, is shared with various other species of deer, though it is the most evolutionarily distinct member of its sub-family.
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 ====== I.	REINDEER PHYSIOLOGY ======
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-Of the deer in its sub-family, it is fairly more stocky, and the bucks can weigh over 200 kilogrammes. The doe is more lightweight, and only weigh up to 100 or so kilogrammes less. It is a muscular deer, the deer has relatively thin legs – if the legs were to be thicker, the animal would be at a disadvantage of escaping predation. The hooves, however, are considerably wider than that of other deer species - as so to prevent reindeer from sinking into the soft tundra ground beneath. On the head of both sexes, unique amongst deer, are a pair of antlers. The antlers of the male can grow especially large, weighing alone up to 15 kilogrammes, though the antlers of the female are fairly smaller. The opposite sexes, however, shed the antlers at different times of the year – Males lose the antlers around early Winter, though the does lose their antlers around early May. A reason for this may be because of food availability – in that pregnant females are at more need of food than mature male deer. And as such, to protect food from competitors is essential for both the mother and fawn. In the case of castrated male reindeer, they tend to lack the levels of testosterone needed for the antler to completely harden - so the antler's velvet never sheds, and the antler itself does not fall off. This can lead to abnormal growth on the antler, which has the potential to become infected. The brow twines at the front of the antler over time lose a sharp shape, and the antler decreases in size over time. The skull of the reindeer is typical amongst deer – it is fairly elongated, with about 34 teeth. With no incisors at the upper jaw, reindeer cannot chew most polygonal solid food – the teeth are rather built for eating grass. As is the case with a fair number of mammals, the reindeer has two layers of fur, guard hairs and underfur – making for effective insulation from harsh temperatures, which may descend as low as 62 degrees Celsius below zero.
+Of the deer in its sub-family, it is fairly more stocky, and the bucks can weigh over 200 kilogrammes. The doe is more lightweight, and only weigh up to 100 or so kilogrammes less. It is a muscular deer, the deer has relatively thin legs – if the legs were to be thicker, the animal would be at a disadvantage of escaping predation. The hooves, however, are considerably wider than that of other deer species - as so to prevent reindeer from sinking into the soft tundra ground beneath. On the head of both sexes, unique amongst deer, are a pair of antlers. The antlers of the male can grow especially large, weighing alone up to 15 kilogrammes, though the antlers of the female are fairly smaller. The opposite sexes, however, shed the antlers at different times of the year – Males lose the antlers around early Winter, though the does lose their antlers around early May. A reason for this may be because of food availability – in that pregnant females are at more need of food than mature male deer. And as such, to protect food from competitors is essential for both the mother and fawn. In the case of castrated male reindeer, they tend to lack the levels of testosterone needed for the antler to completely harden - so the antler's velvet never sheds in a regular fashion, and the antler itself does not fall off regularly, instead in smaller chunks. This can lead to abnormal growth on the antler, which has the potential to become infected. The brow twines at the front of the antler over time lose a sharp shape, and regular shape of the antler is often lost. In female reindeer, the growth of the antler is controlled by the respective sex hormone - oestrogen. The skull of the reindeer is typical amongst deer – it is fairly elongated, with about 34 teeth. With no incisors at the upper jaw, reindeer cannot chew most polygonal solid food – the teeth are rather built for eating grass. As is the case with a fair number of mammals, the reindeer has two layers of fur, guard hairs and underfur – making for effective insulation from harsh temperatures, which may descend as low as 62 degrees Celsius below zero.
 Reindeer have different appearances based on their ecotype. Traditionally classified as one species, some recent research suggests that reindeer are better classified within six different species. These are as follows:
 R. fennicus, the Eurasian Forest Reindeer, which is found in areas of Finland and possibly also Russia. The forest reindeer, classified traditionally as R. t. fennicus, is a subspecies found almost entirely in boreal forest. The body of the forest reindeer bears resemblance to that of the American caribou. However, it appears to have antlers which are largely symmetrical. It has become a sub-species of conservation importance – during the 20th century it was heavily hunted, and many remaining animals interbred with genetically-impure domesticated reindeer. Later in the 20th century a reintroduction programme at Suomenselkä began – and today, the herd has reached a size of some 2000 animals. There also exist forest reindeer in isolated populations – the Siberian forest reindeer, R. t. valentinae, or R. f. valentinae (or sometimes considered as R. fennicus), is found in forested areas of Siberia. Recent studies done with the Siberian forest reindeer of the Altai-Sayan region have found rather low genetic diversity, and also intervention from domestic reindeer. Genetic sampling has brought interesting result regarding the forest reindeer – the Siberian Forest Reindeer and Finnish Forest Reindeer seem to form sister clades, despite a significant amount of land between either ecotype’s ranges. The forest reindeer has a pelage similar to American caribou. The colouration of the pelage varies depending on the individual – but the winter coat tends to have a large area of white around the neck and shoulders, with a brown stripe separating this area from the white belly and ‘stockings’. Above this area of white is an area of brown fur. The rump is white, though the presents of a white belly seems to vary amongst individuals. The summer pelage of the reindeer is thinner and darker in colour.
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 ====== III. PEOPLE AND REINDEER ======
- Interactions of people and reindeer appear to have begun far longer ago than traditionally thought – in that traditional estimates put reindeer domestication as only a result of a few centuries, though recent years have led to the discovery of ancient artifacts thought to be reindeer harnesses – radio-carbon dated to about 2,000 years, originating in northern Siberia. It is also known that around 700 years ago, the Sámi people used reindeer as a form of transportation to pull sleds as working animals. Interestingly, where peoples of Eurasia successfully domesticated reindeer, the Caribou of North America were never domesticated. Even so, many native tribes of North America rely on caribou as part of their diet; and in the case of the Nunamiut Iñupiat, it is the most important food source; and they rely on caribou also for fat, fur, and bones - which can be used to make a broth. Caribou fur allows for warmth in the hostile cold of the Arctic, and the tendons of the caribou can be used to make nets. Even today, the traditional herding of reindeer continues – when such occurs, the herders follow an organised migration path of the reindeer, which requires astute and intimate knowledge of the reindeer involved and their surroundings. It also requires an understanding of reindeer husbandry – namely which reindeer are to be slaughtered, which are to become draft-animals, and which are to be castrated. Although a need for transportation has been lessening in recent years, reindeer are still herded for meat, hide, and milk. This, thus, makes them the only species of deer that has become largely domesticated. In more recent times, reindeer farming has proven to be marketable.
+The domestication of the Eurasian tundra reindeer appear to have begun far longer ago than traditionally thought – in that traditional estimates put reindeer domestication as only a result of a few centuries, though recent years have led to the discovery of ancient artifacts thought to be reindeer harnesses – radio-carbon dated to about 2,000 years, originating in northern Siberia. It is also known that around 700 years ago, the Sámi people used reindeer as a form of transportation to pull sleds as working animals. Interestingly, where peoples of Eurasia successfully domesticated reindeer, the Caribou of North America were never domesticated. Even so, many native tribes of North America rely on caribou as part of their diet; and in the case of the Nunamiut Iñupiat, it is the most important food source; and they rely on caribou also for fat, fur, and bones - which can be used to make a broth. Caribou fur allows for warmth in the hostile cold of the Arctic, and the tendons of the caribou can be used to make nets. And arguably with the decline of such traditional foods as moose and salmon, the importance of caribou as food will grow in years to come. Even today, the traditional herding of reindeer continues – when such occurs, the herders follow an organised migration path of the reindeer, which requires astute and intimate knowledge of the reindeer involved and their surroundings. It also requires an understanding of reindeer husbandry – namely which reindeer are to be slaughtered, which are to become draft-animals, and which are to be castrated. Although a need for transportation has been lessening in recent years, reindeer are still herded for meat, hide, and milk. This, thus, makes them the only species of deer that has become largely domesticated. Close to the end of the 19th century, domestic reindeer were brought to Alaska as a source of food for the native peoples; who were believed to be malnourished [a belief held by Reverend Sheldon Jackson, a political figure and missionary]. The government of the United States funded the emigration of Scandinavian Sámi to Alaska so to teach methods of reindeer husbandry to natives. Reindeer meat became marketed on such fine qualities that the animal was already well-adapted to the Alaskan climate, and fulfilled much the same ecological niche as the native caribou. By 1937 reindeer herding in Alaska proved profitable; and the Reindeer Act was passed into law; which barred Sámi and other imigrants from herding tundra reindeer. Reindeer became federally managed in Alaska - where some 20,000 live on Indigenous properties today. In the lower 48 states, many reindeer live on farms also.
-This is in part due to the Western conception of reindeer – although reindeer have played a role in mythology for thousands of years, as symbols of luck, riches, and allure, it would not be popular with the Western World until the 1800s, with the publication of “A Visit from St. Nicholas” – introducing the characters of eight flying reindeer - “Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now, Prancer and Vixen! On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Dunder and Blixem*!” It would not be until 1939 when a ninth reindeer was added to the Yuletide roll-call – when Robert L. May of the Montgomery Ward department store would be asked to write a Christmas story as a promotional event. And so it would be that Rudolph, the red-nosed reindeer, would be the most recent member of the Yuletide herd, and about 10 years later, May’s brother-in-law would write a song based off May’s book. At this point in time, reindeer were essentially contemporary with the holiday scene. Such popularity has led to reindeer becoming popular attractions across the Western world, making appearances at public facilities, such as manors and gardens, as so to capitalise off holiday enthusiasm. This, however, has not been met without controversy – the RSPCA of the United Kingdom has expressed concern for reindeer used in public events, in that the social animals are likely under great stress when usually kept alone in small areas to meet passing tourists. Most tour-reindeer live on nearby farms throughout the year, rented typically only during the holiday season, proving as popular tourism attractions. In the case of the Cairngorms Reindeer Herd of Scotland; castrate reindeer are used in holiday displays, but live in the mountains for the rest of the year. Whilst this herd is able to traverse the entirety of the Cairngorms, they are still managed by people - and socialise well with people.
+This is in part due to the newfound Western perception of reindeer – although reindeer and caribou have played a role in mythology for thousands of years, as symbols of luck, riches, and allure, reindeer would not be popular with much of Europe and North America until the 1800s, with the publication of “A Visit from St. Nicholas” – introducing the characters of eight flying reindeer - “Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now, Prancer and Vixen! On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Dunder and Blixem*!” It would not be until 1939 when a ninth reindeer was added to the Yuletide roll-call – when Robert L. May of the Montgomery Ward department store would be asked to write a Christmas story as a promotional event. And so it would be that Rudolph, the red-nosed reindeer, would be the most recent member of the Yuletide herd, and about 10 years later, May’s brother-in-law would write a song based off May’s book. Reindeer have become a potent element of Christmas imagery - though many depictions have these animals resemble more southerly-living deer. At this point in time, reindeer were essentially contemporary with the holiday scene. Such popularity has led to reindeer becoming popular attractions across the Western world, making appearances at public facilities, such as manors and gardens, as so to capitalise off holiday enthusiasm. This, however, has not been met without controversy – the RSPCA of the United Kingdom has expressed concern for reindeer used in public events, in that the social animals are likely under great stress when usually kept alone in small areas to meet passing tourists. Most tour-reindeer live on nearby farms throughout the year, rented typically only during the holiday season, proving as popular tourism attractions. In the case of the Cairngorms Reindeer Herd of Scotland; castrate reindeer are used in holiday displays, but live in the mountains for the rest of the year. Whilst this herd is able to traverse the entirety of the Cairngorms, they are still managed by people - and socialise well with people.
 *//”Dunder” and “Blixem” are now commonly referred to in most cases as “Donner and Blitzen.” The two words translate from Dutch to “thunder” and “lighting” respectively.//